Agricultural Land
Towards a modular multi ecosystem monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) framework for soil organic carbon stock change assessmentBackgroundSoils store roughly 1,500–2,400 petagrams (Pg) of organic carbon globally, more than the combined carbon in the atmosphere and vegetation, making soil organic carbon (SOC) a critical component of climate mitigation and land degradation neutrality targets. Many initiatives assume that relatively small annual increases in SOC across large areas could offset gigatonnes (Gt) of CO2, but these claims require robust, comparable monitoring systems. Current MRV approaches often focus on single sectors and use heterogeneous methods, limiting their usefulness for cross-ecosystem accounting and results-based finance. Open access copy available |
Assessing the Environmental and Socioeconomic Impacts of Mangrove Loss in Indonesia: A Synthesis for Science-Based PolicyBackgroundIndonesia’s rate of mangrove loss has accelerated to about 40% over the past 30 years. Despite the government’s policies and investments for mitigating mangrove degradation, low seedling survival, and poor site suitability have impeded restoration progress. This study aims to review mangrove loss in Indonesia and assess the negative impacts of mangrove loss on carbon stocks, local livelihoods, and ecosystem benefits (e.g., fisheries, coastal protection, biodiversity). Open access copy available |
Global Carbon Budget 2023Background“Global Carbon Budget 2023” extends this annual budget series with data up to 2022 and a projection for 2023, including for the first time explicit treatment of carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and new constraints from atmospheric oxygen measurements. Atmospheric CO2 averages 417.1 ± 0.1 ppm in 2022 and is projected to reach about 419.3 ppm in 2023, reflecting continued net accumulation despite temporary pandemic-related emission reductions. Open access copy available |
Global Carbon Budget 2022Background“Global Carbon Budget 2022” extends the series of budgets to 2021 with a projection for 2022, documenting that fossil carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions likely surpass pre-COVID pandemic levels. Atmospheric CO2 growth remains high, with decadal mean growth around 5.2 GtC yr⁻¹ for 2012-2021 and concentrations exceeding 414 ppm. Open access copy available |
Global Carbon Budget 2021Background“Global Carbon Budget 2021” updates the budget to 2020 and projects 2021, analyzing the rebound of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions after the initial downturn during the COVID-19 pandemic. Atmospheric CO2 continues to increase, with decadal mean growth reaching ~5.1 GtC yr⁻¹ for 2011–2020 and concentrations surpassing 412 ppm. Open access copy available |
Global Carbon Budget 2020Background“Global Carbon Budget 2020” quantifies the carbon dioxide (CO2) budget through 2019 and provides a 2020 projection, capturing the emissions drop associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Atmospheric CO2 nevertheless continues to rise, reflecting the cumulative effect of past emissions and the fact that sinks absorb only part of the annual anthropogenic CO2. Open access copy available |
Global Carbon Budget 2019Background“Global Carbon Budget 2019” extends the budget series through 2018 with a 2019 projection, during a period of record-high emissions and intensifying policy focus on net-zero targets. Atmospheric CO2 continues to rise, crossing ~407 ppm in 2018, driven primarily by fossil fuel combustion with significant but smaller contributions from land-use change. This paper situates these trajectories within the industrial-era cumulative emissions that underpin IPCC remaining carbon budget assessments. Open access copy available |
Global Carbon Budget 2018Background“Global Carbon Budget 2018” extends the global carbon dioxide (CO2) budget through 2017 and provides a 2018 emissions projection, documenting a renewed acceleration in fossil emissions after a brief slowdown. Atmospheric CO2 reached 405.0 ± 0.1 ppm in 2017, reflecting cumulative industrial era emissions and ongoing dependence on fossil fuels and land-use change. The paper places these trends in the context of mitigation targets that depend on the magnitude of remaining carbon budgets. Open access copy available |
Global Carbon Budget 2017Background“Global Carbon Budget 2017” updates the evolving anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) budget to 2016, capturing emissions growth, atmospheric accumulation, and sink responses in a period of strong climate policy debate. Atmospheric CO2 averaged about 402.8 ppm in 2016 and continues to rise as fossil fuel emissions remain the dominant anthropogenic CO2 source, with land-use change providing an additional contribution. The paper situates these changes within industrial-era cumulative emissions and increasing concerns about remaining carbon budgets. Open access copy available |
Global Carbon Budget 2016Background“Global Carbon Budget 2016” extends the budget through 2015 and provides preliminary 2016 fossil emission estimates, marking the period when global atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) surpassed 400 ppm. Atmospheric concentration increases from about 277 ppm in 1750 to 399.4 ± 0.1 ppm in 2015, with global monthly means above 400 ppm in multiple months. This study emphasizes that fossil fuel emissions remain the dominant anthropogenic source, while land-use change continues to contribute a smaller but persistent share. Open access copy available |
